NT302 - Lesson 1: Greco-Roman Civilisation: The Social and Religious World

Greco-Roman Civilisation: The Social and Religious World

Introduction

As the second part of Acts deals with Paul’s missionary ventures into Gentile territory, and as the NT epistles are addressed to localities within such territory, it is imperative that we understand the social and religious milieu of the first century Greco-Roman world.

At the outset we need to note what is implied in this hyphenated term. Rome was the dominant power and the systems of administration and government were Roman, but Greek (Hellenist) culture still pervaded the empire (language, architecture, philosophy etc.). This cultural legacy stemmed from Alexander the Great, who saw Greek culture as a gift to the nations he conquered.

As a consequence, Rome already had unity amongst the diversity of the nations it subjugated. The Greeks were intellectually superior and Greek ideas and technical skill were not opposed by Rome, but seen as instruments of cohesion within the empire.

1. The Consolidation of the Roman Empire

Up until mid first century BC the Roman empire was a mixture of oligarchy and military dictatorships.

The latter finally gave way to the rise of the first emperor Julius Caesar, who was murdered in 44BC. Power was seized by Julius’ adopted son (his grandnephew) Gaius Octavius, who eventually defeated his chief rival Mark Antony at the battle of Actium (31 BCE). Octavian was now sole ruler of the empire. Octavian was bestowed with the honorific title “Augustus” by the Roman senate. He saw himself as a benevolent ruler who sought the following:

• consolidation of its borders
• peace and security within the empire
• equal distribution of the taxation burden

2. Means of the Unification of the Empire

Rome pursued various ways of unifying such a diverse empire. Roman citizenship rights were gradually extended to the provinces, with double citizenship not uncommon (as per Paul [Acts 21:39]). Roman propaganda was disseminated via coinage, which bore the emperor’s inscription and images of military victories (eg. over Jerusalem in AD 70). Further, the emperor was promoted as the supreme benefactor of all who pledged allegiance to Rome. In fact, Augustus termed himself pater patriae - father of the country.

In addition to the above, oaths of allegiance to the emperor were demanded, and together with the deification of past emperors this formed the basis for the emergence of an emperor cult. This cult was administered by the temples and priests, which involved the offering of perfunctory sacrifice. The Jews were granted exemption from this, but of course the Christians could not comply.

There was a universal system of law, but differences of rights and benefits between citizens and non-citizens (see Acts 25:9-12).

3. Travel and Communication

The presence of the pax Romana (Roman peace) enabled free and safe travel within the empire. The Mediterranean had been cleared of pirates, and while highway robbery was not eliminated (see 2 Cor 11:26) it had been curtailed significantly.

The Romans constructed a road system that in many cases has endured to the present day. This enabled free merchant trade.

In terms of religious values there was religious and philosophical tolerance, with a free exchange of ideas.

Greek was spoken extensively throughout the empire and was the official language in the East.

4. The Religious Milieu

i) The Passing of the gods

By the 1^st C AD religion was quite materialistic and fatalistic. The old pantheon of the gods no longer captured the devotion of the masses, although perfunctory rites were performed at festival occasions. The reasons for this shift were:

a) The immorality of the gods themselves: the gods were not good models for society! Furthermore the associated cultic rites often seen as immoral (revolting to even the pagan mind!)

b) Syncretism was confusing and not intellectually compelling

c) Greek science and cosmology (cosmology is one's view of the order of the cosmos):
The gods/deities were believed to reside in the outer regions of the stars. There was a stress on cosmic order, transcendence and universal law. There was also an emphasis on fate, tied to astrology.

ii) Coping with the Spiritual Vacuum

Thus somewhat of a spiritual vacuum was apparent, and various options arose by which one may satisfy the spiritual longing within. These may be summarised as follows:

a) Demonology
A natural consequence of viewing God (gods) as transcendent was to develop belief in a system of intermediary beings who related directly to human affairs. The daemons were considered to be both good and evil powers who could indwell human beings. Such beliefs caused fear, dread and superstition.

b) Astrology
The origins of astrology lay in Babylonia, but it became very popular in the Hellenistic world. It rode on the back of the study of astronomy, a science that was centred in Alexandria. Astrology thus posed as a pseudo-science.

c) Magic
Magic was linked to demonology and superstition, and sought to compel the spiritual forces to act via the recitation of formulae or the observance of certain rites. Ephesus (see Acts 19:18ff) and Egypt were major centres for the practice of magic.

d) Mystery Religions
This is an all-embracing term for a myriad of secret religious cults, whose origins lay in tribal cults and fertility rituals. The mystery religion worshipped a particular deity in the Greco-Roman region. They were quite popular for a number of reasons:

• a chance for one to be intimately connected with the divine
• meets the need for personal salvation
• appealed to the emotions rather than the intellect

The "mysteries" were private religions that were open to those willing to go through initiation procedures including secret rites that involves preparation by purification and fasting. The language of ‘dying and rising’ and ‘new birth’ was sometimes used for this. Other features were:

• sharing of common meal
• egalitarian in focus
• secret ceremonies (though some public festivals)

e) Gnosis

The religious form of Gnosis is salvation by illumination. Knowledge frees one from the material world to the higher world of spirit (e.g. dualism with a focus on asceticism). The spirit within is the divine spark which needs liberation from the physical world.

Although there was not fully a developed Gnosticism until the second century, elements of that later belief appear to be present in the NT period (see Colossians, 1 John).

f) Philosophy

By the first century there was a shift away from the intellectual philosophy of Plato and Aristotle to a more ethically orientated philosophy. Philosophical debate was no longer a product of the classroom but now discussed in the market place (see Acts 17). The main philosophical schools were:

a. Epicureanism

• founded by Epicurus (b. 341 BC), who taught that fulfilment is to be found in freedom from all that troubles the body or mind
• later misunderstood as pleasure seeking (gratifying bodily desires etc.), but these were in fact considered to be a distraction from true peace of mind
• adherents took no role in public affairs but lived a rather detached life
• avoidance of the “violent” passions (anger, ambition, love)
• sought to eliminate the fear of punishment after death and the wrath of the gods by teaching that the soul disintegrates at death
• post death state = pre birth state
• not overly popular in the Roman world due to its radical detachment from popular religion and popular deities
• did not suit the Roman temperament

b. Stoicism

• founded by Zeno of Citium (335-263 BC) and held by the emperor Marcus Aurelius
• ‘reason’ (logos) is the principle that governs both the world and humanity
• the ultimate goal was to live in harmony with nature - believed in God as the supreme Roman deity (Jupiter) or the supreme Greek deity (Zeus)
• was essentially monotheistic ( = belief in one God), but capable of adaptation to more popular religious belief
• monotheism was pantheistic (= God is in everything)
• no uniformity of belief in the continuing existence of the soul after death - some teach unity of the soul with the divine after purification
• emphasis on duty, and cooperating with the inevitable
• taught the brotherhood / unity of all humanity
• but not love/empathy so much as tolerance
• focus is on autarkeia (self-suficiency) iii) Judaism in the Greco-Roman World

Origins of diaspora ( = dispersion) Judaism go back to the Babylonian captivity (587 BC), but was given further impetus by voluntary migration of Jews during the Hellenistic period. By the beginning of the Christian era Jews were scattered throughout the civilised world (Acts 2:9-11), though they still regarded Jerusalem as their spiritual home.

Approx 50,000 Jews lived in Rome at this time, and Philo stated that there were a million in Egypt and the surrounding regions.

Diaspora Jews needed to develop a system of worship that was not dependent upon the temple and sacrificial system. Thus a focus developed on:

• prayer
• reading of the law and prophets
• Sabbath and circumcision
• food laws

The diaspora gave rise to the ‘synagogue’. The earliest found is 1^st century BC, but there were apparently 11 synagogues in Rome. The synagogue movement enabled Judaism to survive post 70 AD.

Thus Christianity had a ready made contact point for the gospel as it spread beyond Palestinian borders, for Jewish synagogues existed in all major regional centres. And the Gentile Godfearers, who were well versed in the OT, formed a vital component of those synagogue.

In terms of the relationship of Jews to pagan society, attitudes were mixed. Some embraced aspects of Greek culture (as they did in Palestine), others were more sectarian. All spoke Greek, and many would have spoken nothing but Greek. But having said this, all Jews were known for their rigid monotheism and distinctive moral lifestyle (though some were more lax than others regarding the law - e.g. Jews of Phrygia).

Because of its uniqueness, Judaism was attractive to many Greeks and Romans. They could read the Jewish scriptures in Greek (the LXX), and could become full proselytes through circumcision. Others had the status of ‘Godfearers’ (Acts 10:1-48).

The most significant Hellenist Jew was Philo of Alexandria (c. 15 BC – c. 50 AD). Philo sought to integrate Greek philosophy and Judaism via an allegorical interpretation of the OT. He argued that the two systems are not incompatible but are actually saying the same thing. For example, Abraham marries Wisdom in the person of Sarah.

Religious options in the first Century

Blomberg, Jesus and the Gospels, p. 38

The Jewish Revolts

Introduction

The Jewish revolt, culminating in the destruction of the temple in AD 70, is an event of immense importance for the following reasons:

1. It gives us insights into life in Palestine at the time of the early church
2. Judaism as a temple-based religion is finished
3. It marks a significant point in the parting of ways between Judaism and Christianity iv) It may inform the NT at a number of points

1. Factors that led to the Revolt

The revolt involves a complex interaction of events and we should avoid simplistic assessments. To a large extent it depends on the source being read, all of which have their bias. But the major causes appear to be:

1. Increasing tension between Jews and Gentiles in Judea, particularly in Caesarea
2. Irresponsible leadership and behaviour of the Roman governors (particularly Felix and Florus)
3. Years of oppressive taxation coupled with the severe famine of 48 AD
4. Class strife within Judaism itself v) The rise of a number of insurrectionist groups

a) The Caesarea Factor

Disputes over Jewish privileges in this mainly Gentile city led to rioting. The Roman procurator Felix ordered military intervention (to the detriment of the Jews) and sent both parties to Rome to have the matter adjudicated by Nero. Felix himself was recalled, and the emperor found in favour of the Gentiles. But the Gentiles inflamed the situation by arrogant attitudes and offensive behaviour. For example a bird was sacrificed outside the synagogue door, thus implying that those within were leprous. The Jews appealed to the new procurator Florus, to no avail.

b) Irresponsible Procurators

This culminated in Florus, who was unequalled in terms of stupidity and lack of integrity. He was open to bribery, and even raided the temple treasury and stole 17 talents. This obviously provoked a riot upon which Florus had a number of leading citizens crucified. Several attempts to pacify the people failed, and the daily offering for the welfare of the emperor was stopped. This was, in effect, a declaration of revolt against Rome.

c) Insurrectionist Groups

As a result of the above, Jewish revolutionary zeal increased. The Antonia fortress (adjacent to the temple) was seized and the Roman garrison destroyed. A zealot faction, which a little while previously had taken the fortress at Masada on the Dead Sea, heard of the events in Jerusalem and saw this as a ripe time to join the rebellion.

They were led by Menahem, a descendant of Judas the Galilean. They managed to take the western part of Jerusalem, but Menahem and Eleazar (the leader of the revolt in Jerusalem) fought amongst themselves and the former was eventually killed. At this point Mehahem’s faction returned to Masada.

2. The Jewish War (66-73 AD)

a) Cestius Gallus

In November 66 AD the Syrian governor Cestius Gallus marched on Jerusalem to quash the rebellion. He occupied the northern portion of the city then retreated (possibly to gather more forces). But his army was ambushed at the Pass of Beth-horan and was decimated. This only caused to inflame the insurrectionist fervour in Jerusalem.

b) Vespasian

Vespasian arrived in Spring of 67 AD from Rome to take charge of the situation. He subdued Judea and arrived at Jerusalem in mid 68 AD, but upon hearing of Nero’s death he stopped to await new orders. A period of civil instability followed in Rome, so Vespasian suspended operations temporarily. Rather than take this opportunity to marshal the forces and present a united front against the Romans, the rival Jewish movements and leaders fought amongst themselves (e.g. Simon bar Giora, John of Gischala, Eleazar). Vespasian resumed operations in June 69 AD, but returned to Rome after being proclaimed emperor shortly after.

c) Titus

Vespasian’s eldest son Titus took over the military reigns and began the siege of Jerusalem in April 70 AD. The temple was occupied and burnt in August of that year. There was apparently some debate over whether this was a wise course of action (Josephus states that Titus tried to save it – but Josephus cannot be considered impartial at this point). All resistance crushed by the end of September.

Masada was the last zealot stronghold, but this fell in 73 AD when the revolutionaries committed mass suicide in the face of inevitable defeat.

d) Josephus

Josephus was actually a leader of the insurrectionist forces in Galilee, and was captured by Vespasian in 67 AD. He was spared when he hailed the general as emperor-designate. When this was actualised, Vespasian held him in honour and Josephus spent the remainder of his life in Rome at the imperial residence. During his life in Rome Josephus wrote two important historical works:

• Antiquities of the Jews (Ant.)
• The Jewish War (War or Bel)

Both works have a bias, especially the latter which was written to defend the actions of Rome as God-ordained (for example, blame is placed solely with the zealot hotheads, and the defence of Titus who sought to spare the temple).

Josephus' two other works are:

• Life (autobiography)
• gainst Apion (an apology for the Jews against anti-Semitic movements

Josephus is an important historical source for Christian scholarship (even given his tendentiousness) in that he gives a detailed account of life in first century Palestine . He corroborates much of what is either stated or apparent in the NT, but there are some historical discrepancies (e.g. Acts 5:36-37).

3. The Bar Kochba Revolt (132-135 AD)

a) Simeon ben Kosiba

This powerful man who had wide support was leader of this second revolt. He was given the name Bar Kochba (= son of the star - a messianic designation), conferred upon him by Rabbi Akiba. His leadership was rejected by Jewish Christians, who could not support either him or the revolt, and thus were persecuted by their fellow Jews.

b) The Revolt

Emperor Hadrian promised to return Jerusalem to the Jews, whereupon the temple could be rebuilt. But he went back on his word and sought to construct Jerusalem as a pagan city. He consequently banned circumcision in 132 AD.

In response the Jews hoarded weapons and planned revolt. They were supported by both non-Jews and Samaritans. Unlike the first war, Bar Kochba led a united resistance, with compulsory conscription. Land belonging to Rome was taken and leased out by the new Jewish government, and coins minted dated in the year of ”the redemption of Israel”.

Twelve Roman legions fought in the war (legion = 6000 men). The rebels were forced to move to the final stronghold of Bether, which fell in 135 AD. The Roman historian Dio Cassius states that the following casualties occurred:

• 985 villages destroyed
• 50 fortresses decimated
• 580,000 people killed Emperor Hadrian then established the town of Aelia Capitolina on the site of Jerusalem.